The "Burning Times" began in earnest from 1550 to 1650, with mass hysteria and burnings. In
the 16th century, the number of witch trials actually dropped when the Reformation hit. Witch
hunting had become part of broader campaigns to impose religious orthodoxies, and witch-hunts
lost most of their momentum with the end of the Thirty Years War when the Peace of
Westphalia, 1648, brought greater religious recognition and made efforts toward tolerance. In the
17th century, the Great Hunt passed as suddenly as it had arisen until they disappeared
completely by the end of the 18th century.
the 16th century, the number of witch trials actually dropped when the Reformation hit. Witch
hunting had become part of broader campaigns to impose religious orthodoxies, and witch-hunts
lost most of their momentum with the end of the Thirty Years War when the Peace of
Westphalia, 1648, brought greater religious recognition and made efforts toward tolerance. In the
17th century, the Great Hunt passed as suddenly as it had arisen until they disappeared
completely by the end of the 18th century.
Mass witch trials began in the 15th century with the help of the Malleus, which had thirty
reprints by 1669 and was an Inquisitor's handbook of questions and torture. It is also called a
casebook study of sexual psychopathology since the Malleus manual's overtones were mostly
sexual, "all witchcraft comes from carnal lust which in women is insatiable," and it displayed the
authors' deep, pathological hatred of women. Even midwives were special targets of the
inquisition, and three quarters of people executed as witches were women.
reprints by 1669 and was an Inquisitor's handbook of questions and torture. It is also called a
casebook study of sexual psychopathology since the Malleus manual's overtones were mostly
sexual, "all witchcraft comes from carnal lust which in women is insatiable," and it displayed the
authors' deep, pathological hatred of women. Even midwives were special targets of the
inquisition, and three quarters of people executed as witches were women.
Ferdinand von Wittelsbach, Catholic prince-archbishop of Cologne burned
2,000 members of his flock during the 1630s. In Southwest Germany
alone, 3,229 people were executed for witchcraft between 1562 and 1684.
Three- quarters of all witchcraft trials took place in the Catholic-ruled
territories of the Holy Roman Empire.
2,000 members of his flock during the 1630s. In Southwest Germany
alone, 3,229 people were executed for witchcraft between 1562 and 1684.
Three- quarters of all witchcraft trials took place in the Catholic-ruled
territories of the Holy Roman Empire.
Emperor Leopold I in 1679 forbade the introduction of new tortures, particularly the Nagelbett,
or bed of nails. In 1679, Emerenziane Pichler was tried at Linz, and after a year condemned with
her two eldest children. She was burned September 25, 1680; her two children, aged twelve and
fourteen, on September 27, 1680. In 1679, a beggar boy, age 14, whom the police suspected
caused storms, was tortured until he came up with confession and accomplices names of which
he named 3. All four were burned December 13, 1679. A priest, Laurenz Paumgartner, wrote in
his diary that in his small parish alone, within 15 months around 1680, thirteen witches had been
executed. In 1688, a whole family, including children and servants, were burned in Styria. In
1695 at Steiermark, Marina Schepp confessed to having sex with the devil after 6 1/2 hours on
the torture stool, and she was therefore burned.
or bed of nails. In 1679, Emerenziane Pichler was tried at Linz, and after a year condemned with
her two eldest children. She was burned September 25, 1680; her two children, aged twelve and
fourteen, on September 27, 1680. In 1679, a beggar boy, age 14, whom the police suspected
caused storms, was tortured until he came up with confession and accomplices names of which
he named 3. All four were burned December 13, 1679. A priest, Laurenz Paumgartner, wrote in
his diary that in his small parish alone, within 15 months around 1680, thirteen witches had been
executed. In 1688, a whole family, including children and servants, were burned in Styria. In
1695 at Steiermark, Marina Schepp confessed to having sex with the devil after 6 1/2 hours on
the torture stool, and she was therefore burned.
In 1775, the last official German execution for witchcraft took place with Anna Maria Schwiigel
in Bavaria. In 1787, all witchcraft laws in Austria were repealed.
in Bavaria. In 1787, all witchcraft laws in Austria were repealed.
Two Dominican priors, Heinrich Krammer and Jacob Sprenger, were empowered by Pope
Innocent VIII in a Bull of 1484 to prosecute witches throughout northern Germany. Krammer
had been appointed inquisitor in 1474 for Tyrol, Bohemia, Salzburg and Moravia, and he soon
became the Archbishop of Salzburg's closest advisor. The purpose of the papal edict was to
squash the Protestant opposition to the inquisition and to solidify the case made in 1258 by Pope
Alexander IV for the prosecution of witches as heretics. Eliminating heretics was one way to
strengthen Church control and to enrich the Church by confiscating property.
Innocent VIII in a Bull of 1484 to prosecute witches throughout northern Germany. Krammer
had been appointed inquisitor in 1474 for Tyrol, Bohemia, Salzburg and Moravia, and he soon
became the Archbishop of Salzburg's closest advisor. The purpose of the papal edict was to
squash the Protestant opposition to the inquisition and to solidify the case made in 1258 by Pope
Alexander IV for the prosecution of witches as heretics. Eliminating heretics was one way to
strengthen Church control and to enrich the Church by confiscating property.
| "The Belief that there are such Beings as Witches is so Essential a Part of the Catholic Faith that Obstinacy to maintain the Opposite Opinion manifestly savours of Heresy." |
Another Praetorius appeared in history, Pastor Anton Praetorius, born in Lippstadt in 1560. In
1597, Praetorius was appointed as pastor and had to witness the torture of 4 accused witches.
According to court records, the Reverend was so upset about the torture that he protested
violently and succeeded in stopping the trial against the last surviving woman. He was one of the
first with the courage to protest the terrible situation of accused witches. In his new parish in
Laudenbach, he wrote a book, initially under an assumed name in 1598, "Gründlicher Bericht
über Zauberey und Zauberer"to protest against the torture and prosecution of witches. Praetorius
died in 1613.
1597, Praetorius was appointed as pastor and had to witness the torture of 4 accused witches.
According to court records, the Reverend was so upset about the torture that he protested
violently and succeeded in stopping the trial against the last surviving woman. He was one of the
first with the courage to protest the terrible situation of accused witches. In his new parish in
Laudenbach, he wrote a book, initially under an assumed name in 1598, "Gründlicher Bericht
über Zauberey und Zauberer"to protest against the torture and prosecution of witches. Praetorius
died in 1613.
Thousands of witches were executed in German lands. The Protestants were by no means
immune to witch frenzy, however. Both Luther and Calvin directed bitter sermons against
witches. In Austria before 1570, prosecution was infrequent due in part to the moderation of
Emperor Maximilian II, 1564-76. To him, witches and fortune tellers were merely idiots.
However, under his successor Emperor Rudolf II, who was influenced by witch haters among
his closest advisors, witchcraft peaked. When an old woman was seized as a witch and tortured
several times, she confessed she had copulated with the devil, raised storms for fourteen years,
and gone to the sabbat. The elderly municipal judge, appointed during the reign of the skeptical
Maximilian II, found the old woman insane and committed her to an asylum, but he was
overruled by newly appointed judges, who condemned the accused to be dragged on a hurdle to
the stake and there burned.
immune to witch frenzy, however. Both Luther and Calvin directed bitter sermons against
witches. In Austria before 1570, prosecution was infrequent due in part to the moderation of
Emperor Maximilian II, 1564-76. To him, witches and fortune tellers were merely idiots.
However, under his successor Emperor Rudolf II, who was influenced by witch haters among
his closest advisors, witchcraft peaked. When an old woman was seized as a witch and tortured
several times, she confessed she had copulated with the devil, raised storms for fourteen years,
and gone to the sabbat. The elderly municipal judge, appointed during the reign of the skeptical
Maximilian II, found the old woman insane and committed her to an asylum, but he was
overruled by newly appointed judges, who condemned the accused to be dragged on a hurdle to
the stake and there burned.
Some really enjoyed the sport. Jakob Bithner was a Lutheran witch-hunter in the Austrian duchy
of Styria during the late sixteenth century. In March 1580, Bithner was in charge of sending
regular reports to the court and to the estates, including assessments of the conditions and safety
of the duchy's postal routes, bridges, footpaths, and roads. He used his position to send a series
of reports to the Styrian estates outlining his interests in "eradicating all manifestations of magic
and superstition," and described his involvement in no fewer than 23 of the 39 known cases of
witchcraft between 1578 and 1600.
of Styria during the late sixteenth century. In March 1580, Bithner was in charge of sending
regular reports to the court and to the estates, including assessments of the conditions and safety
of the duchy's postal routes, bridges, footpaths, and roads. He used his position to send a series
of reports to the Styrian estates outlining his interests in "eradicating all manifestations of magic
and superstition," and described his involvement in no fewer than 23 of the 39 known cases of
witchcraft between 1578 and 1600.
Krammer and Sprenger produced the Malleus Maleficarum, a witch hunters guide, complete with
instructions on how to discern witches, draw them out, identify them and question them. It soon
spread throughout Europe and into England, adopted by both Protestant and Catholic civil and
ecclesiastical judges. One basic theme is that simply not believing in the existence of witchcraft is
in itself a heresy. Sprenger and Kraemer begged church authorities to fight witches by any means.
instructions on how to discern witches, draw them out, identify them and question them. It soon
spread throughout Europe and into England, adopted by both Protestant and Catholic civil and
ecclesiastical judges. One basic theme is that simply not believing in the existence of witchcraft is
in itself a heresy. Sprenger and Kraemer begged church authorities to fight witches by any means.
It seems both men had unsavory characters. Several bishops had given them the boot for their
questionable actions, and an ecclesiastical warrant had once been issued against them for
embezzling fees for indulgences and later for forging notarized documents.
questionable actions, and an ecclesiastical warrant had once been issued against them for
embezzling fees for indulgences and later for forging notarized documents.
During the time of the Inquisition, most witches were classed as heretics, not only disbelievers in
church doctrine but also servants of the Devil. Although not all witches were burned at the stake,
very few found guilty of heresy escaped this church punishment. During the years of plague,
witches were thought to spread the black death. It was later discovered that a convenient way to
eliminate a rival, a romantic competitor, an enemy or a bad neighbor was to accuse them of
witchcraft, and tindividual cases began an upward momentum from the 14th and 15th century.
church doctrine but also servants of the Devil. Although not all witches were burned at the stake,
very few found guilty of heresy escaped this church punishment. During the years of plague,
witches were thought to spread the black death. It was later discovered that a convenient way to
eliminate a rival, a romantic competitor, an enemy or a bad neighbor was to accuse them of
witchcraft, and tindividual cases began an upward momentum from the 14th and 15th century.
Men who went around conjuring and experimenting with the darker arts were often just
considered alchemists or doctors, and even if branded as heretics they usually simply relocated.
Consider Cornelius Agrippa, the most influential writer of Renaissance esoterica, and indeed all
of Western occultism. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486-1535) was a knight,
doctor and magician born in Cologne in 1486 of minor noble birth. He was luckier than Agnes.
considered alchemists or doctors, and even if branded as heretics they usually simply relocated.
Consider Cornelius Agrippa, the most influential writer of Renaissance esoterica, and indeed all
of Western occultism. Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (1486-1535) was a knight,
doctor and magician born in Cologne in 1486 of minor noble birth. He was luckier than Agnes.
He studied medicine, alchemy and theology in Cologne, but his early theological lectures angered
the Church and his impassioned defense of a woman accused of witchcraft in 1520 led to his
being expelled from Cologne. He became doctor to the queen mother Louise de Savoy at the
court of King Francis I in Lyons in 1524 and began an impressive conjunction of planets called
the "Big Parade" which greatly perked the townsfolk's interest in astrology and he became a local
celebrity. When he was later fired, he fled and began practicing medicine in Antwerp, where he
was also let go for practicing without a license. He became court historiographer for Charles V.
and journeyed to Paris, Spain and England and spent time in Italy, where under the military
service of Emperor Maximilian he was made a knight. He wrote extensive texts on the occult. In
1510, he drafted his masterpiece, De occulta philosophia libri tres, but after numerous friendly
warnings, he chose not to publish, keeping it secret and continuing to revise and rethink the book
for twenty years.
the Church and his impassioned defense of a woman accused of witchcraft in 1520 led to his
being expelled from Cologne. He became doctor to the queen mother Louise de Savoy at the
court of King Francis I in Lyons in 1524 and began an impressive conjunction of planets called
the "Big Parade" which greatly perked the townsfolk's interest in astrology and he became a local
celebrity. When he was later fired, he fled and began practicing medicine in Antwerp, where he
was also let go for practicing without a license. He became court historiographer for Charles V.
and journeyed to Paris, Spain and England and spent time in Italy, where under the military
service of Emperor Maximilian he was made a knight. He wrote extensive texts on the occult. In
1510, he drafted his masterpiece, De occulta philosophia libri tres, but after numerous friendly
warnings, he chose not to publish, keeping it secret and continuing to revise and rethink the book
for twenty years.
He was regularly denounced for heresy and would issue bitter, fervent responses. In this way, he
lost several positions...but, he didn't lose his head and was not turned into a pork chop. It is
thought that Agrippa died in Grenoble, in 1535. There were rumors circulated after his death that
he had summoned demons, and that upon his deathbed he released his "familiar", a black dog
which resurfaces in various forms of fiction from Goethe's Faust to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.
lost several positions...but, he didn't lose his head and was not turned into a pork chop. It is
thought that Agrippa died in Grenoble, in 1535. There were rumors circulated after his death that
he had summoned demons, and that upon his deathbed he released his "familiar", a black dog
which resurfaces in various forms of fiction from Goethe's Faust to Mary Shelley's Frankenstein.
| Agrippa |
Witch hunting peaked in Germany in the 17th century. Early panics had
taken place in Brandenburg and Mecklenburg, then in the Rhineland and
Southwest Germany, with German ecclesiastical territories hit hardest.
The town of Baden burned 200 witches from 1627 to 1630. Tiny
Ellwangen burned 393 witches from 1611 to 1618, and the Catholic
prince-bishop of Würzburg burned 600 witches from 1628 to 1631.
taken place in Brandenburg and Mecklenburg, then in the Rhineland and
Southwest Germany, with German ecclesiastical territories hit hardest.
The town of Baden burned 200 witches from 1627 to 1630. Tiny
Ellwangen burned 393 witches from 1611 to 1618, and the Catholic
prince-bishop of Würzburg burned 600 witches from 1628 to 1631.
| A Familiar Scene |
There were also witchcraft scares in Tirol and Salzburg. In Tirol, those accused of witchcraft
who may have confessed and then retracted that confession were sent back to be tortured again.
Only those under seven years old were safe.
who may have confessed and then retracted that confession were sent back to be tortured again.
Only those under seven years old were safe.
This secondary period of witch baiting at the end of the seventeenth century also occured in
Salzburg, with the Zauberer Jackl trials, and in the Austrian provinces of Styria and the Tirol,
finding expression in the Halsgerichtsordnung, a severe anti-witchcraft code adopted in 1707
with its hideous punishments. In 1673, "Gutenhag, a judge" kept a 57 year old woman 11 days
and nights kneeling on a torture stool with sharp prongs, burning her feet with sulfur, because she
would not confess a pact with the devil.
Salzburg, with the Zauberer Jackl trials, and in the Austrian provinces of Styria and the Tirol,
finding expression in the Halsgerichtsordnung, a severe anti-witchcraft code adopted in 1707
with its hideous punishments. In 1673, "Gutenhag, a judge" kept a 57 year old woman 11 days
and nights kneeling on a torture stool with sharp prongs, burning her feet with sulfur, because she
would not confess a pact with the devil.
Once upon a time, every child born on August 18th could be tested for possible witchcraft because,
according to a local legend, an evil warlock was born on that day in 1638. The Schwarzenberg is a mountain
in the middle of the Lungau near the castle of Moosham. People there say that long ago, witches lived in the
mountain and came out of their caves at midnight. They wore white robes and danced on the meadow under
the full moon, but only children could hear their music.
according to a local legend, an evil warlock was born on that day in 1638. The Schwarzenberg is a mountain
in the middle of the Lungau near the castle of Moosham. People there say that long ago, witches lived in the
mountain and came out of their caves at midnight. They wore white robes and danced on the meadow under
the full moon, but only children could hear their music.
In Salzburg, all night long the witches danced, whispered, laughed and quietly talked, and the dancing-place
of the witches was called "Rader Tanzhügel", or "dancing hill."On that hill the snow melted quickly in
winter, and it was said that was because the witches danced the snow away.
of the witches was called "Rader Tanzhügel", or "dancing hill."On that hill the snow melted quickly in
winter, and it was said that was because the witches danced the snow away.
Other common punishments around the time that witches were being burned at the stake
included cutting out the tongue for perjury, false witness, and blasphemy. Men convicted of
aggravated murder were quartered or broken on the wheel; common murderers, robbers or
arsonists were generally beheaded, while thieves were hung; heretics could be drowned or boiled.
Rapists and people convicted of infanticide were often buried alive.
included cutting out the tongue for perjury, false witness, and blasphemy. Men convicted of
aggravated murder were quartered or broken on the wheel; common murderers, robbers or
arsonists were generally beheaded, while thieves were hung; heretics could be drowned or boiled.
Rapists and people convicted of infanticide were often buried alive.
| WITCHES |