| The Ottoman Invasion |
The Ottomans were initially just one of many nomadic Turkish tribes. After being introduced to
Islam, they developed great fighting traditions and expanded their rule through the clever acquisition
of land and wealth. Their expansion had a serious impact on the European continent and its people,
who feared the virtual downfall of Christendom. Although Europeans mounted crusades against them
in 1366, 1396, and 1444, the Ottomans continued to conquer territory after territory.
Islam, they developed great fighting traditions and expanded their rule through the clever acquisition
of land and wealth. Their expansion had a serious impact on the European continent and its people,
who feared the virtual downfall of Christendom. Although Europeans mounted crusades against them
in 1366, 1396, and 1444, the Ottomans continued to conquer territory after territory.
Under Tamerlan early in the fifteenth century, the Tatars temporarily delayed the Turkish advances
but the Ottomans soon recommenced attacks on Byzantium and Eastern Europe. In 1444, a Polish-
Hungarian army was destroyed at Varna by Murad the Second. By 1453, the year that Gutenberg
produced an edition of the bible using movable type, they seemed almost invincible. When the Turks
managed to capture Constantinople, shock and fear swept Europe. By 1482, the Ottoman Empire
had conquered the lands of Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. By 1493,
the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria, at the same time starting sea campaigns.
Then, starting with the Venetian Republic over maritime control, there were continuing maritime
wars after the fall of Constantinople, in 1463-1479, and after Cyprus fell to Venice, in 1499-1503.
but the Ottomans soon recommenced attacks on Byzantium and Eastern Europe. In 1444, a Polish-
Hungarian army was destroyed at Varna by Murad the Second. By 1453, the year that Gutenberg
produced an edition of the bible using movable type, they seemed almost invincible. When the Turks
managed to capture Constantinople, shock and fear swept Europe. By 1482, the Ottoman Empire
had conquered the lands of Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. By 1493,
the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria, at the same time starting sea campaigns.
Then, starting with the Venetian Republic over maritime control, there were continuing maritime
wars after the fall of Constantinople, in 1463-1479, and after Cyprus fell to Venice, in 1499-1503.
The Kingdom of Hungary was seriously impacted by Ottoman conquest, finally crumbling in the
Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which much of Hungary was placed under 150 years of Turkish
Occupation. Parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were occupied from 1421 until 1718, or three hundred
years! In 1529, the Ottomans mounted their first major attack on the Austrian Monarchy trying to
conquer the province of Styria, laying waste to the country.
Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which much of Hungary was placed under 150 years of Turkish
Occupation. Parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were occupied from 1421 until 1718, or three hundred
years! In 1529, the Ottomans mounted their first major attack on the Austrian Monarchy trying to
conquer the province of Styria, laying waste to the country.
| The Siege of Vienna of 1529 |
Salm had previously ordered 4,000 women, children, and elderly out of the city with escorts, but
most of the group was slaughtered at Traismauer, with many impaled on stakes and some young
women taken to be sold as slaves. Now, at the moment of truth, von Salm brilliantly defended the
city and frightened the Ottomans with his cunning. Through various clever maneuvers, the Turks
were led to believe they were outnumbered and, sensing hopelessness, they surprisingly and quickly
packed their campsites that night, throwing their captured Austrian prisoners into a large fire.
most of the group was slaughtered at Traismauer, with many impaled on stakes and some young
women taken to be sold as slaves. Now, at the moment of truth, von Salm brilliantly defended the
city and frightened the Ottomans with his cunning. Through various clever maneuvers, the Turks
were led to believe they were outnumbered and, sensing hopelessness, they surprisingly and quickly
packed their campsites that night, throwing their captured Austrian prisoners into a large fire.
Many Austrian captives managed to escape to the walls of the city,
where ladders were lowered for them; the Viennese were still not sure
if it was all over. The next day it snowed, and Vienna's defenders
carefully emerged from their fortress; Ottoman casualties were
thought to have been around 20,000 to 25,000, many more than
those of the city's, although most of Austria south of Vienna was
brutally de-populated. Each man let into Vienna after the siege was
examined for circumcision, believing the Turks had smuggled in spies,
and those that failed the test were hanged. Although the Ottomans
continued to instil fear well into the sixteenth century, internal
struggles began to deteriorate the once overwhelming military
supremacy of the Ottoman Empire. The outcome of battles was no
longer a foregone conclusion and European confidence increased as
they began to score victories against the Turks, yet the Ottoman
Empire invaded Moldavia in 1538 and took Buda and Pest in 1541.
where ladders were lowered for them; the Viennese were still not sure
if it was all over. The next day it snowed, and Vienna's defenders
carefully emerged from their fortress; Ottoman casualties were
thought to have been around 20,000 to 25,000, many more than
those of the city's, although most of Austria south of Vienna was
brutally de-populated. Each man let into Vienna after the siege was
examined for circumcision, believing the Turks had smuggled in spies,
and those that failed the test were hanged. Although the Ottomans
continued to instil fear well into the sixteenth century, internal
struggles began to deteriorate the once overwhelming military
supremacy of the Ottoman Empire. The outcome of battles was no
longer a foregone conclusion and European confidence increased as
they began to score victories against the Turks, yet the Ottoman
Empire invaded Moldavia in 1538 and took Buda and Pest in 1541.
Within the Ottomans, infighting developed and they were plagued with disagreements over
succession, politics and managerial issues However, they still had immense power as they had
gained great wealth by their control over shipping and trade routes that the Europeans needed.
succession, politics and managerial issues However, they still had immense power as they had
gained great wealth by their control over shipping and trade routes that the Europeans needed.
Duke Charles of Lorraine gained the victory by undertaking a daring wheeling movement with
doubling and flanking movements. They totally destroyed the Turkish Army and the road to Vienna
was now opened. Rüdiger von Starhemberg had heroically defended the city of Vienna with 10,000
men. The Turks lost at least 15,000 men with at least 5,000 men captured and all cannons, while the
Habsburg-Polish forces lost approximately 4,500 dead and wounded. Kara Mustafa was executed in
Belgrade later that year by order of the commander of the Janissaries. From this point on, European
confidence grew and the battlefield success of the Turks waned. After winning the Battle of Vienna,
the Europeans gained advantage and led the reconquest of Hungary which ended with the Treaty of
Karlowitz in 1699.
doubling and flanking movements. They totally destroyed the Turkish Army and the road to Vienna
was now opened. Rüdiger von Starhemberg had heroically defended the city of Vienna with 10,000
men. The Turks lost at least 15,000 men with at least 5,000 men captured and all cannons, while the
Habsburg-Polish forces lost approximately 4,500 dead and wounded. Kara Mustafa was executed in
Belgrade later that year by order of the commander of the Janissaries. From this point on, European
confidence grew and the battlefield success of the Turks waned. After winning the Battle of Vienna,
the Europeans gained advantage and led the reconquest of Hungary which ended with the Treaty of
Karlowitz in 1699.
| The Battle of Vienna 1683; also known as The Second Siege of Vienna |
On September 12, 1683, Christian forces included Duke Karl V von Lothringen with 8,000 men
on foot, 12,000 men on horses and 70 cannons. The Saxons under the command of Duke Johann
George III brought 7,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horses and 1,400 men with 16 cannons. The
Bavarian Count Max Emanuel came with 7,500 men on foot, 3,000 on horses and 26 cannons. The
Franken and Swabian troops under Count Georg Friedrich contributed 7,000 men on foot 2,500 on
horses and 28 cannons. The total Christian forces had 75,000 troops and 150 to 170 cannons. The
Turks had 30,000 men in the trenches around Vienna and 107,000 troops and 300 cannons to
oppose the Christian armies. Lastly, King Jan Sobieski III of Poland arrived with a force of 10,200
men on foot, 14,000 on horses and 28 cannons.
on foot, 12,000 men on horses and 70 cannons. The Saxons under the command of Duke Johann
George III brought 7,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horses and 1,400 men with 16 cannons. The
Bavarian Count Max Emanuel came with 7,500 men on foot, 3,000 on horses and 26 cannons. The
Franken and Swabian troops under Count Georg Friedrich contributed 7,000 men on foot 2,500 on
horses and 28 cannons. The total Christian forces had 75,000 troops and 150 to 170 cannons. The
Turks had 30,000 men in the trenches around Vienna and 107,000 troops and 300 cannons to
oppose the Christian armies. Lastly, King Jan Sobieski III of Poland arrived with a force of 10,200
men on foot, 14,000 on horses and 28 cannons.
At four o'clock in the morning the Imperial soldiers were praying in a ceremony in open field. They
had been fighting for hours with grave losses while the Polish King waited on high ground watching,
the Germans having failed to persuade him to move forward and intervene earlier. Finally, the army
was divided into three groups: Imperials and Saxons on the left wing, Bavarians center, and the
Polish taking the right. Ibrahim, the Pascha of Ofen, broke forth upon the Poles and several troops
ran away. Count Ludwig of Baden then attacked with two of his Imperial dragoon regiments, and
succeeded in rolling back the Turkish line of battle.
had been fighting for hours with grave losses while the Polish King waited on high ground watching,
the Germans having failed to persuade him to move forward and intervene earlier. Finally, the army
was divided into three groups: Imperials and Saxons on the left wing, Bavarians center, and the
Polish taking the right. Ibrahim, the Pascha of Ofen, broke forth upon the Poles and several troops
ran away. Count Ludwig of Baden then attacked with two of his Imperial dragoon regiments, and
succeeded in rolling back the Turkish line of battle.
The Great Turkish War began in 1683 with a grand invasion of 200,000 troops marching toward
Vienna, supported by Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. Another Holy League
comprised of Austria, Poland, Venice and Russia was formed to stop them. On July 16,1683, the
Turks were standing in front of Vienna's gates again. Horrible stories were told in Vienna about the
people who were not able to escape from the enemy. All of the inhabitants of Perchtoldsdorf were
beaten to death by Turkish soldiers, and in the villages of Lilienfeld, Wilhelmsburg, Hainfeld, and
Türnitz most of the citizens were murdered, while hundreds of women were kidnapped and taken
to Turkey as slaves. The Turkish soldiers were likewise motivated, not from self defense, but by the
rich booty Vienna offered. Turks were attacking the terrified city in wave after wave, and the
situation inside the city became dire, with a scarcity of ammunition and food combined with rampant
dysentery. Turks were shooting with artillery day and night and there were fires everywhere.
Vienna, supported by Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. Another Holy League
comprised of Austria, Poland, Venice and Russia was formed to stop them. On July 16,1683, the
Turks were standing in front of Vienna's gates again. Horrible stories were told in Vienna about the
people who were not able to escape from the enemy. All of the inhabitants of Perchtoldsdorf were
beaten to death by Turkish soldiers, and in the villages of Lilienfeld, Wilhelmsburg, Hainfeld, and
Türnitz most of the citizens were murdered, while hundreds of women were kidnapped and taken
to Turkey as slaves. The Turkish soldiers were likewise motivated, not from self defense, but by the
rich booty Vienna offered. Turks were attacking the terrified city in wave after wave, and the
situation inside the city became dire, with a scarcity of ammunition and food combined with rampant
dysentery. Turks were shooting with artillery day and night and there were fires everywhere.
It was not until later, when the combined Austrian and German forces of the “Empire of German
Nations” under the leaders Karl V von Lothringen, Max Emanuel von Bayern and Ludwig Wilhelm I
von Baden defeated the Turks at Harsany (Harschan) near Mohács in 1686-1687 that the Islamic
threat to the Christian Civilization finally came to a halt. Once again, France took advantage of the
situation to further raid, burn and plunder Germany. The repulsion of the Turks constituted the
climax of the Turkish Wars and to most Europeans, the salvation of Christianity. To commemorate,
church bells rang daily at noon and six throughout parts of Europe for many decades.
Nations” under the leaders Karl V von Lothringen, Max Emanuel von Bayern and Ludwig Wilhelm I
von Baden defeated the Turks at Harsany (Harschan) near Mohács in 1686-1687 that the Islamic
threat to the Christian Civilization finally came to a halt. Once again, France took advantage of the
situation to further raid, burn and plunder Germany. The repulsion of the Turks constituted the
climax of the Turkish Wars and to most Europeans, the salvation of Christianity. To commemorate,
church bells rang daily at noon and six throughout parts of Europe for many decades.
Poland, Saxony, Bavaria, Baden, Franconia and Swabia all answered the call for a Holy League
supported by Pope Innocent XI.to save western civilization. Only the Habsburg's rival Louis XIV of
France declined to help, thus weakening the Emperor's forces in the east. Instead, he used the
opportunity to ruthlessly and greedily annex territories in western Europe such as Luxembourg and
Alsace with Strasbourg, just as France had done in the Thirty Years' War. Had the Ottomans won,
France would have immediately been the strongest nation in Europe. Because of the ongoing war
against the Turks, Austria could not lend support to her German allies in the West, and France
pounced at the opportunity.
supported by Pope Innocent XI.to save western civilization. Only the Habsburg's rival Louis XIV of
France declined to help, thus weakening the Emperor's forces in the east. Instead, he used the
opportunity to ruthlessly and greedily annex territories in western Europe such as Luxembourg and
Alsace with Strasbourg, just as France had done in the Thirty Years' War. Had the Ottomans won,
France would have immediately been the strongest nation in Europe. Because of the ongoing war
against the Turks, Austria could not lend support to her German allies in the West, and France
pounced at the opportunity.
The conquest of Thrace on the northern frontier of the Byzantine Empire gave the Ottomans the
capital Adrianople in 1366, from which they embarked upon their vast forays into Christian lands,
developing an increasingly larger empire over the next century. Many European leaders of a large
crusading army were taken hostage at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1394, below right. After swallowing
large sections of Byzantine territories in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, by the late 14th century
Ottoman expansion into Europe was well advanced. Their expansion shown on the map, below left.
capital Adrianople in 1366, from which they embarked upon their vast forays into Christian lands,
developing an increasingly larger empire over the next century. Many European leaders of a large
crusading army were taken hostage at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1394, below right. After swallowing
large sections of Byzantine territories in Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, by the late 14th century
Ottoman expansion into Europe was well advanced. Their expansion shown on the map, below left.
Operational command of the defence was given to a 70 year-old German mercenary named Nicholas
Graf von Salm who had arrived with 1,000 German Landsknechte, above right, a formidable group
of mercenary pikemen, and another 700 Spanish musketmen. He would be taking charge of the
garrison of 23,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 75 cannon. He faced a fierce and despised adversary
against great odds.
Graf von Salm who had arrived with 1,000 German Landsknechte, above right, a formidable group
of mercenary pikemen, and another 700 Spanish musketmen. He would be taking charge of the
garrison of 23,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 75 cannon. He faced a fierce and despised adversary
against great odds.
Count Ernst Rüdiger von Starhemberg, 1638-1701, was the military commander of the city of
Vienna. Left with less than 20,000 men against 300,000 besieging Turks he refused to capitulate,
relying on the army of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor to relieve him and on the strength of the
Vienna city walls, which were soon breached by the Turkish Sappers who had dug tunnels
underneath the wall and detonated explosives. Vienna was soon teetering on collapse, but Von
Starhemberg's troops were well organized and disciplined. He organized companies of firefighters to
defuse bombs and concentrated the city's artillery at the point of Ottoman attack. However, the
Ottoman siege cut virtually every means of food supply into Vienna, and the garrison and civilian
volunteers suffered extreme misery and high casualties. Fatigue was such a problem that von
Starhemberg ordered any soldier found asleep on watch to be shot.
Vienna. Left with less than 20,000 men against 300,000 besieging Turks he refused to capitulate,
relying on the army of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor to relieve him and on the strength of the
Vienna city walls, which were soon breached by the Turkish Sappers who had dug tunnels
underneath the wall and detonated explosives. Vienna was soon teetering on collapse, but Von
Starhemberg's troops were well organized and disciplined. He organized companies of firefighters to
defuse bombs and concentrated the city's artillery at the point of Ottoman attack. However, the
Ottoman siege cut virtually every means of food supply into Vienna, and the garrison and civilian
volunteers suffered extreme misery and high casualties. Fatigue was such a problem that von
Starhemberg ordered any soldier found asleep on watch to be shot.
On September 5th, rescue was close. Kara Mustapha expected to take Vienna in five hours, but
made several tactical errors. He did not fortify his army or secure the hills of the Viennese woods.
The main battle took place at "Kahlenberg" hill.
made several tactical errors. He did not fortify his army or secure the hills of the Viennese woods.
The main battle took place at "Kahlenberg" hill.
The Ottoman Empire lived for war. They were the first state to maintain a standing army in Europe
since the Romans, and they ran a tight, successful ship. While Western military camps were often
scenes of disorder, debauchery and drunkenness, Ottoman camps were quiet, efficient and orderly.
Each winter, the previous year's campaigns were stringently reviewed with complete reports sent
from a network of spies. Methodically, plans were crafted for the coming year.
since the Romans, and they ran a tight, successful ship. While Western military camps were often
scenes of disorder, debauchery and drunkenness, Ottoman camps were quiet, efficient and orderly.
Each winter, the previous year's campaigns were stringently reviewed with complete reports sent
from a network of spies. Methodically, plans were crafted for the coming year.
Their Ghazi warriors were skilled and well trained. They had once usually been tribal leaders or
emirs under the Seljuk sultans, but the common bond between them was their fierce devotion to
Islam and urgent desire to spread that influence through warfare. Along with the Gazi warriors, the
Ottomans also used "Sipallis", invariably Muslim Turks who were scattered across the empire,
always moving from billet to billet, and from billet to the front line. There was even a mentally ill
regiment called the Deli, or maniacs, who allowed themselves to be used as human battering rams.
The Janissaries were the real elite of the Ottoman Army, however, and for centuries were ranked
among the finest infantry in Europe. Janissaries were Christian captives from conquered territories
who were educated in Islam and trained for war.
emirs under the Seljuk sultans, but the common bond between them was their fierce devotion to
Islam and urgent desire to spread that influence through warfare. Along with the Gazi warriors, the
Ottomans also used "Sipallis", invariably Muslim Turks who were scattered across the empire,
always moving from billet to billet, and from billet to the front line. There was even a mentally ill
regiment called the Deli, or maniacs, who allowed themselves to be used as human battering rams.
The Janissaries were the real elite of the Ottoman Army, however, and for centuries were ranked
among the finest infantry in Europe. Janissaries were Christian captives from conquered territories
who were educated in Islam and trained for war.
In 1529, the Ottomans had moved up the Danube and besieged Vienna. The army which Suleiman
the Magnificent sent against Vienna in 1529 consisted of 325,000 men, 500 artillery pieces and
90,000 camels. Providing for the camel’s daily diet of barley and straw was often forced upon locals
by corrupt Ottoman dignitaries, locals who then levied taxes to pay for camels hired by the state.
There were different jobs for camels and the wagons drawn by horses or oxen, the camels usually
being used for longer trips and even preferred for use over sea routes at times. While drenching rains
made it impossible for most of the Ottoman camels to maneuver, and many of their soldiers lay ill,
the sight of tents as far as they could see still terrified besieged Vienna.
the Magnificent sent against Vienna in 1529 consisted of 325,000 men, 500 artillery pieces and
90,000 camels. Providing for the camel’s daily diet of barley and straw was often forced upon locals
by corrupt Ottoman dignitaries, locals who then levied taxes to pay for camels hired by the state.
There were different jobs for camels and the wagons drawn by horses or oxen, the camels usually
being used for longer trips and even preferred for use over sea routes at times. While drenching rains
made it impossible for most of the Ottoman camels to maneuver, and many of their soldiers lay ill,
the sight of tents as far as they could see still terrified besieged Vienna.
The German Marco Polo and an Account of his Captivity as an Ottoman Slave: Johann Schiltberger
The siege itself began on July 14, 1683, with the Ottoman Empire army numbering approximately
150,000 men, including 12,000 Janissaries with an observation army of approximately 70,000 men
watching the countryside. The decisive battle took place on September 11-12 , after the united relief
army of approximately 80,000 men had arrived.
150,000 men, including 12,000 Janissaries with an observation army of approximately 70,000 men
watching the countryside. The decisive battle took place on September 11-12 , after the united relief
army of approximately 80,000 men had arrived.
Europe had faced previous threats from Islamic armies: Battle of Tours
Ottoman Christian captive warriers: Janissaries
From left: von Starhemberg and
Jan Sobieski; An English pamphlet
criticizing Louis XIV and Mehmed
IV for their respective roles in the
Siege of Vienna in 1683: "Without
the help of the Most Christian
Against the Most Anti Christian
Monarch" (click)
Jan Sobieski; An English pamphlet
criticizing Louis XIV and Mehmed
IV for their respective roles in the
Siege of Vienna in 1683: "Without
the help of the Most Christian
Against the Most Anti Christian
Monarch" (click)
The surviving Ottoman army of 35-40,000 men was not enough for Suleiman,
left, to take on Vienna again, and in 1547 a temporary truce was signed
between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. Suleiman, with his empire
which expanded greatly both east and west, was the most significant ruler in
the world, threatening the very heart of Europe. A brilliant military strategist,
great poet and shrewd politician, he was also a cultivator of the arts.
left, to take on Vienna again, and in 1547 a temporary truce was signed
between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires. Suleiman, with his empire
which expanded greatly both east and west, was the most significant ruler in
the world, threatening the very heart of Europe. A brilliant military strategist,
great poet and shrewd politician, he was also a cultivator of the arts.
By 1570, the Holy League of Venice, the Papal States, Spain and (initially) Portugal opposed the
Ottoman Empire, and the 15-Year War with Austria (1593-1606) ended with no gains. After a war
with Venice from 1645 to 1669, and at the same time another campaign against Austria from 1663
to 1664, there was war with Poland in 1672-1676 after Poland beat back a Tatar invasion, and here
Jan Sobieski first distinguished himself and became the King of Poland.
Ottoman Empire, and the 15-Year War with Austria (1593-1606) ended with no gains. After a war
with Venice from 1645 to 1669, and at the same time another campaign against Austria from 1663
to 1664, there was war with Poland in 1672-1676 after Poland beat back a Tatar invasion, and here
Jan Sobieski first distinguished himself and became the King of Poland.
