| The Black Death and the Broom it Rode in on |
It had an old history. In the late 1320s, an especially virulent form of plague
erupted in Mongolia's Gobi desert. Within a generation, it had spread eastward to
China and killed two-thirds of the population. Mongol nomads also carried it west
along trade routes, and all along the 14th century trails, the plague made a home
for itself. By 1349, one-third of the Islamic world had perished from it.
erupted in Mongolia's Gobi desert. Within a generation, it had spread eastward to
China and killed two-thirds of the population. Mongol nomads also carried it west
along trade routes, and all along the 14th century trails, the plague made a home
for itself. By 1349, one-third of the Islamic world had perished from it.
The bacillus enters the blood stream going directly to the lymph nodes, enlarging
and inflaming of the glands causing buboes to appear in the groin, armpit, or neck.
The plague is transmitted by the rat flea (Xenopsylla Cheopis). The rat infects the
flea, and the flea then spreads the disease to humans and over 100 other species
of animals.
and inflaming of the glands causing buboes to appear in the groin, armpit, or neck.
The plague is transmitted by the rat flea (Xenopsylla Cheopis). The rat infects the
flea, and the flea then spreads the disease to humans and over 100 other species
of animals.
The first symptoms of Bubonic Plague are headache, nausea, vomiting, and aching joints. The lymph
nodes swell painfully and the temperature soars. The victim becomes extremely exhausted and
develops a purple tint to the skin...hence, "black" plague. Death comes in about four days.
nodes swell painfully and the temperature soars. The victim becomes extremely exhausted and
develops a purple tint to the skin...hence, "black" plague. Death comes in about four days.
Medieval doctors blamed everything from the planets to cats to earthquakes for the disease, and tried
to stop it by any means possible. Believing that the air had become "stiff " and had to be broken by
loud noise, some suggested bell ringing, guns and even birds flying around in rooms. Eventually, they
put two and two together and recognised contagion as a factor. Once preventative quarantines were
in force, the death rate fell. But it didn't get to the source: in the warm months, and all year in
southern Europe, there was at least one family of black rats per household and an estimated average
of three fleas per rat.
to stop it by any means possible. Believing that the air had become "stiff " and had to be broken by
loud noise, some suggested bell ringing, guns and even birds flying around in rooms. Eventually, they
put two and two together and recognised contagion as a factor. Once preventative quarantines were
in force, the death rate fell. But it didn't get to the source: in the warm months, and all year in
southern Europe, there was at least one family of black rats per household and an estimated average
of three fleas per rat.
The Black Death arrived in England in June of 1348 and
devastated London. By mid-July, over 1,000 deaths per week
were reported in London. The gates of the city were closed,
turning it into a virtual plague ward and people were desperate
to escape. 6,000 people per week were dying by August. The
Lord Mayor ordered all dogs and cats destroyed on rumors that
they spread the disease. Author Daniel Defoe, in his Journal of
the Plague Years, estimated that 40,000 dogs and 200,000 cats
were killed. Sadly, these were natural enemies of rats!
devastated London. By mid-July, over 1,000 deaths per week
were reported in London. The gates of the city were closed,
turning it into a virtual plague ward and people were desperate
to escape. 6,000 people per week were dying by August. The
Lord Mayor ordered all dogs and cats destroyed on rumors that
they spread the disease. Author Daniel Defoe, in his Journal of
the Plague Years, estimated that 40,000 dogs and 200,000 cats
were killed. Sadly, these were natural enemies of rats!
Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) had been absent from Western
Europe for nearly a millennium when it appeared in 1348. Its
entrance was immediate and devastating. In some cities, two
thirds of the population succumbed to the plague in the first two
years. Government, commerce and trade came to a stand still.
For the next 200 to 300 years, there would be intermittent
outbreaks of the disease.
Europe for nearly a millennium when it appeared in 1348. Its
entrance was immediate and devastating. In some cities, two
thirds of the population succumbed to the plague in the first two
years. Government, commerce and trade came to a stand still.
For the next 200 to 300 years, there would be intermittent
outbreaks of the disease.
Italian merchants from Genoa, who in 1346 had travelled to the Black Sea ports, caught the plague
and carried what came to be called the Black Death back to Europe in 1347. From Genoa, it went to
Pisa and Siena and ravaged other Italian cities. 45%-75% of Florence residents died and Venice lost
60% of its populace. Giovanni Boccaccio in the introduction to his Decameron said: "Such was the
cruelty of heaven and, to a great degree, of man that, between March and the following July, it is
estimated that more than 100,000 human beings lost their lives within the walls of Florence, what
with the ravages attendant on the plague and the barbarity of the survivors towards the sick."
and carried what came to be called the Black Death back to Europe in 1347. From Genoa, it went to
Pisa and Siena and ravaged other Italian cities. 45%-75% of Florence residents died and Venice lost
60% of its populace. Giovanni Boccaccio in the introduction to his Decameron said: "Such was the
cruelty of heaven and, to a great degree, of man that, between March and the following July, it is
estimated that more than 100,000 human beings lost their lives within the walls of Florence, what
with the ravages attendant on the plague and the barbarity of the survivors towards the sick."
At night, the call from the plague carts rolling by sad, dark
homes in the lanes rang out, "Bring out your dead!" Thick
rags were sometimes tied around the wheels by sensitive
drivers so that people would not have to hear the wagons of
death approaching. From almost every house, a blackened
body of a loved one was brought out and thrown on the truck
to be burned or buried in large pits.
homes in the lanes rang out, "Bring out your dead!" Thick
rags were sometimes tied around the wheels by sensitive
drivers so that people would not have to hear the wagons of
death approaching. From almost every house, a blackened
body of a loved one was brought out and thrown on the truck
to be burned or buried in large pits.
Approximately 25 million Europeans out of a total population of 40 million fell victim to the plague
that rolled over Europe from 1348-52, and thousands more died after it struck again during and after
the Thirty Years War. It ravaged Germany, and in 1663, it reached Holland. Then, for some
inexplicable reason, the pandemic suddenly halted and largely disappeared around 1670, although it
would hit Austria again in 1711, the Balkans from 1770-1772, and Marseilles in 1720 where it at last
breathed its final gasp.
that rolled over Europe from 1348-52, and thousands more died after it struck again during and after
the Thirty Years War. It ravaged Germany, and in 1663, it reached Holland. Then, for some
inexplicable reason, the pandemic suddenly halted and largely disappeared around 1670, although it
would hit Austria again in 1711, the Balkans from 1770-1772, and Marseilles in 1720 where it at last
breathed its final gasp.
According to the Church, the Black Death was seen as a
punishment from God. Groups of people called Flagellants
marched from village to village, whipping themselves with
metal-tipped scourges in self-sacrifice, bargaining with God to
stop punishing the world.
punishment from God. Groups of people called Flagellants
marched from village to village, whipping themselves with
metal-tipped scourges in self-sacrifice, bargaining with God to
stop punishing the world.
| Ring around the rosies, A pocket full of posies, Ashes, ashes! We all fall down. |
Major Plague epidemics had occurred in Egypt in 540, Constantinople in 542, and then in Europe
and Asia (the Plague of Justinian) in the following decade; In this case, the 14th century European
plague followed the caravan routes and was in the lower Volga River basin in 1345, the Caucasus
and Crimea by 1346, and Constantinople, Alexandria, Cyprus, Sicily and Italy by 1347. In 1348, it
hit Marseilles and almost 60% of the population succumbed. Next, it hit Paris, Germany, the Low
Countries and Norway in 1349, eastern Europe by 1350 and finally Russia in 1351. Even Pope
Clement VI caught it in Avignon but recovered. The Pope would one day have to consecrate the
Rhone River so that corpses could be dumped into it. Somebody had to be blamed, enter witches...
and Asia (the Plague of Justinian) in the following decade; In this case, the 14th century European
plague followed the caravan routes and was in the lower Volga River basin in 1345, the Caucasus
and Crimea by 1346, and Constantinople, Alexandria, Cyprus, Sicily and Italy by 1347. In 1348, it
hit Marseilles and almost 60% of the population succumbed. Next, it hit Paris, Germany, the Low
Countries and Norway in 1349, eastern Europe by 1350 and finally Russia in 1351. Even Pope
Clement VI caught it in Avignon but recovered. The Pope would one day have to consecrate the
Rhone River so that corpses could be dumped into it. Somebody had to be blamed, enter witches...
50% of the English clergy, having had intimate contact with the dead and dying, died themselves.
Eventually, over 50% of Britain's population died. The Black Death and other plagues wiped out 20
to 30 percent of the German population in the second half of the 14th century alone. It continued to
torment with occasional outbreaks for another 300 years. Normal life was not possible, and it gave
way to hysterical reactions and witch hunting. Increased vigilance at the town- gates preventing
soldiers, vagrants and traveling merchants from entering cities sometimes helped curb the spread, but
sometimes had ghastly results.
Eventually, over 50% of Britain's population died. The Black Death and other plagues wiped out 20
to 30 percent of the German population in the second half of the 14th century alone. It continued to
torment with occasional outbreaks for another 300 years. Normal life was not possible, and it gave
way to hysterical reactions and witch hunting. Increased vigilance at the town- gates preventing
soldiers, vagrants and traveling merchants from entering cities sometimes helped curb the spread, but
sometimes had ghastly results.
| Rosies are the rosary beads for prayer. Posies masked the objectionable odor of Plague victims. Ashes symbolize a burnt corpse. Fall down means to die. |
| Witches in the Brew |
The "Burning Times" began in earnest from 1550 to 1650, with mass hysteria and burnings. In the
16th century, the number of witch trials actually dropped when the Reformation hit. Witch hunting
had become part of broader campaigns to impose religious orthodoxies, and witch-hunts lost most of
their momentum with the end of the Thirty Years War when the Peace of Westphalia brought greater
religious recognition and made efforts toward tolerance. In the 17th century, the Great Hunt passed
as suddenly as it had arisen until it disappeared completely by the end of the 18th century.
16th century, the number of witch trials actually dropped when the Reformation hit. Witch hunting
had become part of broader campaigns to impose religious orthodoxies, and witch-hunts lost most of
their momentum with the end of the Thirty Years War when the Peace of Westphalia brought greater
religious recognition and made efforts toward tolerance. In the 17th century, the Great Hunt passed
as suddenly as it had arisen until it disappeared completely by the end of the 18th century.
Mass witch trials began in the 15th century with the help of the
Malleus, which had thirty reprints by 1669. It is also called a
casebook study of sexual psychopathology since the Malleus
manual's overtones were mostly sexual, "all witchcraft comes
from carnal lust which in women is insatiable," and it displayed
the authors' deep, pathological hatred of women. Even midwives
were special targets of the inquisition, and three quarters of
people executed as witches were women. Other common
punishments around the time that witches were being burned at
the stake included cutting out the tongue for perjury, false
witness, and blasphemy.
Malleus, which had thirty reprints by 1669. It is also called a
casebook study of sexual psychopathology since the Malleus
manual's overtones were mostly sexual, "all witchcraft comes
from carnal lust which in women is insatiable," and it displayed
the authors' deep, pathological hatred of women. Even midwives
were special targets of the inquisition, and three quarters of
people executed as witches were women. Other common
punishments around the time that witches were being burned at
the stake included cutting out the tongue for perjury, false
witness, and blasphemy.
Two Dominican priors, Heinrich Krammer and Jacob Sprenger, were
empowered by Pope Innocent VIII, left, in a Bull of 1484 to prosecute
witches throughout northern Germany. Krammer had been appointed
inquisitor in 1474 for Tyrol, Bohemia, Salzburg and Moravia, and he soon
became the Archbishop of Salzburg's closest advisor. The purpose of the
papal edict was to squash the Protestant opposition to the inquisition and to
solidify the case made in 1258 by Pope Alexander IV for the prosecution of
witches as heretics. Eliminating heretics was one way to strengthen Church
control and to enrich the Church by confiscating property.
empowered by Pope Innocent VIII, left, in a Bull of 1484 to prosecute
witches throughout northern Germany. Krammer had been appointed
inquisitor in 1474 for Tyrol, Bohemia, Salzburg and Moravia, and he soon
became the Archbishop of Salzburg's closest advisor. The purpose of the
papal edict was to squash the Protestant opposition to the inquisition and to
solidify the case made in 1258 by Pope Alexander IV for the prosecution of
witches as heretics. Eliminating heretics was one way to strengthen Church
control and to enrich the Church by confiscating property.
| "The Belief that there are such Beings as Witches is so Essential a Part of the Catholic Faith that Obstinacy to maintain the Opposite Opinion manifestly savours of Heresy." |
Krammer and Sprenger produced the Malleus Maleficarum, a witch hunters guide, complete with
instructions on how to discern witches, draw them out, identify them and question them. It soon
spread throughout Europe and into England. Adopted by both Protestant and Catholic civil and
ecclesiastical judges, one basic theme is that simply not believing in the existence of witchcraft is in
itself a heresy. Sprenger and Kraemer begged church authorities to fight witches by any means.
instructions on how to discern witches, draw them out, identify them and question them. It soon
spread throughout Europe and into England. Adopted by both Protestant and Catholic civil and
ecclesiastical judges, one basic theme is that simply not believing in the existence of witchcraft is in
itself a heresy. Sprenger and Kraemer begged church authorities to fight witches by any means.
It seems both men had unsavory characters. Several bishops had given them the boot for their
questionable actions, and an ecclesiastical warrant had once been issued against them for embezzling
fees for indulgences and later for forging notarized documents. Nonetheless, their contributions were
welcomed.
questionable actions, and an ecclesiastical warrant had once been issued against them for embezzling
fees for indulgences and later for forging notarized documents. Nonetheless, their contributions were
welcomed.
During the years of plague, witches were thought to spread the black death. It was later discovered
that a convenient way to eliminate a rival, a romantic competitor, an enemy or a bad neighbor was to
accuse them of witchcraft, and individual cases began an upward momentum from the 14th and 15th
century. During the Inquisition, most witches were classed as heretics, not only disbelievers in church
doctrine but also servants of the Devil. Although not all witches were burned at the stake, very few
found guilty of heresy escaped this punishment.
that a convenient way to eliminate a rival, a romantic competitor, an enemy or a bad neighbor was to
accuse them of witchcraft, and individual cases began an upward momentum from the 14th and 15th
century. During the Inquisition, most witches were classed as heretics, not only disbelievers in church
doctrine but also servants of the Devil. Although not all witches were burned at the stake, very few
found guilty of heresy escaped this punishment.
Men convicted of aggravated murder at the time were quartered or broken on the wheel, common
killers, robbers or arsonists beheaded, thieves hung, heretics drowned or boiled and rapists and
people convicted of infanticide buried alive.
killers, robbers or arsonists beheaded, thieves hung, heretics drowned or boiled and rapists and
people convicted of infanticide buried alive.
The female witch was said to: "Spend all night with her sweetheart (Satan) in laying, sporting,
dancing, dalliance and diverse other devilish and lewd sports..."
dancing, dalliance and diverse other devilish and lewd sports..."
| Back to the Plague: Old but not Jolly |
As if the misery as a result of the War was not bad enough, the Black Death, or Plague, which had
subsided for a few generations, struck again throughout almost all of Germany during and after the
Thirty Years War. Carried mainly via travelling soldiers, it claimed thousands of victims.
subsided for a few generations, struck again throughout almost all of Germany during and after the
Thirty Years War. Carried mainly via travelling soldiers, it claimed thousands of victims.
