| Münster, Neuss, Neustrelitz, Neuwied, Nürnberg, Nordhausen, Offenburg, Ohrdruf, Osnabrück, Ottbergen, Paderborn, Pforzheim and Pirmasens |
| Münster |
On the evening of April 2, 1945, the Allies took the town anyway. Up to this time there were 1,128
air alarms and 112 air raids in altogether. The bombs amounted to altogether 32,000 high-
explosives, 642,000 staff incendiaries and 8,100 phosphorus (napalm) bombs. With the numerous
attacks more than 1,600 humans died. Of 33,737 dwellings once in the city, only 1,050 remained
intact, and more than 60% were mostly or completely destroyed.
air alarms and 112 air raids in altogether. The bombs amounted to altogether 32,000 high-
explosives, 642,000 staff incendiaries and 8,100 phosphorus (napalm) bombs. With the numerous
attacks more than 1,600 humans died. Of 33,737 dwellings once in the city, only 1,050 remained
intact, and more than 60% were mostly or completely destroyed.
Between September, 1944 and March, 1945 there were 50 more air raids directed at the
cathedral city, of which the last and most devastating was on March 25, 1945 toward the end of
the war. 112 heavy bombers dropped over 1,800 high impact bombs and 150,000 incendiary
bombs. The fabulous cathedral sustained direct hits on the western porch and the nave, and was
filled with unexploded bombs, leaving the nave and towers roofless. The Prior responsible for the
church treasures was dead.
cathedral city, of which the last and most devastating was on March 25, 1945 toward the end of
the war. 112 heavy bombers dropped over 1,800 high impact bombs and 150,000 incendiary
bombs. The fabulous cathedral sustained direct hits on the western porch and the nave, and was
filled with unexploded bombs, leaving the nave and towers roofless. The Prior responsible for the
church treasures was dead.
2.5 million cubic feet of debris and rubble stood in place of hundreds of years of history. Burned out towers of the
medieval churches jutted up in the ruined city, the 14th to 18th century buildings all gone The piled up rubble caused a
flood disaster by February of 1946. These gigantic heaps of rubble had to be removed for traffic to flow again. Young
kids, women and old people had to do this all over Germany because the men were either dead, missing or prisoners.
medieval churches jutted up in the ruined city, the 14th to 18th century buildings all gone The piled up rubble caused a
flood disaster by February of 1946. These gigantic heaps of rubble had to be removed for traffic to flow again. Young
kids, women and old people had to do this all over Germany because the men were either dead, missing or prisoners.
In the Second World War, the ancient city center of Münster was almost obliterated and 91% destroyed by allied
bombing, with the loss of nearly all historical buildings. With the first air raid on May 16,1940, an industrial camp was
destroyed. By December 23, further attacks followed. In the nights between July 6th and 10th, 1941, the first surface
bombardments came. After a large-scale night attack on June 12, 1943, in which the target was the Cathedral entry, and
in a daylight raid on October 10, 1943, large parts of the city center were destroyed or heavily damage.
bombing, with the loss of nearly all historical buildings. With the first air raid on May 16,1940, an industrial camp was
destroyed. By December 23, further attacks followed. In the nights between July 6th and 10th, 1941, the first surface
bombardments came. After a large-scale night attack on June 12, 1943, in which the target was the Cathedral entry, and
in a daylight raid on October 10, 1943, large parts of the city center were destroyed or heavily damage.
The infrastructure broke down completely: Substantial parts of the water pipe lines were destroyed
as well as electricity and gas supply. Roads were not any longer passable. 24 schools as well as a
majority of the hospitals were destroyed, so that only 400 beds remained to treat the wounded.
as well as electricity and gas supply. Roads were not any longer passable. 24 schools as well as a
majority of the hospitals were destroyed, so that only 400 beds remained to treat the wounded.
| Neuss |
The city erected the first fortifications for defence at the beginning of the 12th century, when Neuss
was chartered as a city. It belonged to the archbishopric of Cologne until the French Revolutionary
Wars. In 1474–75, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, supporting the archbishop in a quarrel with the
chapter of Neuss, unsuccessfully besieged the city for 11 months.
was chartered as a city. It belonged to the archbishopric of Cologne until the French Revolutionary
Wars. In 1474–75, Charles the Bold of Burgundy, supporting the archbishop in a quarrel with the
chapter of Neuss, unsuccessfully besieged the city for 11 months.
Neuss on the Rhine was one of the oldest towns in Germany. Under Roman Emperor Augustus, the
Romans established a huge military camp called Novaesium around 16 B.C south of Neuss, and
shortly afterwards a civil settlement was founded at the site. It soon became a flourishing trade center.
Romans established a huge military camp called Novaesium around 16 B.C south of Neuss, and
shortly afterwards a civil settlement was founded at the site. It soon became a flourishing trade center.
Between 1940 and 1945, Allied bombers flew 136 air raids on ancient, medieval Neuss
because of its proximity to Düsseldorf, and in ten large scale attacks dropped approximately
12,000 high-explosive bombs,130 aerial mines,102,500 staff incendiary bombs, 6,300
phosphorus bombs and 70 phosphorus canisters, destroying the hospital, schools, churches
and transforming the ancient city into rubble and killing 900 civilians. On New Years Eve of
1945, they destroyed the medieval center. Only 189 dwellings were still intact out of 7,100 by
the end of war.
because of its proximity to Düsseldorf, and in ten large scale attacks dropped approximately
12,000 high-explosive bombs,130 aerial mines,102,500 staff incendiary bombs, 6,300
phosphorus bombs and 70 phosphorus canisters, destroying the hospital, schools, churches
and transforming the ancient city into rubble and killing 900 civilians. On New Years Eve of
1945, they destroyed the medieval center. Only 189 dwellings were still intact out of 7,100 by
the end of war.
| Neuwied |
The oldest proof of human settlement in the area of today's Neuwied is an ice-age hunting
encampment, and since Celtic and Roman time the area was permanently settled. It is on the right
bank of the Rhine river near the mouth of the Wied stream. Neuwied was mentioned in documents
from the 8th century, and was the home of the Wied counts from before 1129. It obtained municipal
rights in 1653 from Ferdinand III.
encampment, and since Celtic and Roman time the area was permanently settled. It is on the right
bank of the Rhine river near the mouth of the Wied stream. Neuwied was mentioned in documents
from the 8th century, and was the home of the Wied counts from before 1129. It obtained municipal
rights in 1653 from Ferdinand III.
Neuwied was a fifth, or almost 20%, destroyed by Allied bombing.
| Nordhausen |
| Nordhausen before and after bombing (no data yet) |
| Ottbergen |
When an unexpected American air raid directed its fury at the small Saxon town of Ottbergen
on February 22,1945, it only destroyed a few houses, but many people fled in panic to a town
shelter to find protection. This being calculated, the shelter was suddenly bombed, killing the
91 civilians who had fled there for safety. The principal target of this attack was purportedly
defense cannons at a nearby plant, but they were left largely undamaged. Ottbergen would
lose 79 more of its people before war's end.
on February 22,1945, it only destroyed a few houses, but many people fled in panic to a town
shelter to find protection. This being calculated, the shelter was suddenly bombed, killing the
91 civilians who had fled there for safety. The principal target of this attack was purportedly
defense cannons at a nearby plant, but they were left largely undamaged. Ottbergen would
lose 79 more of its people before war's end.
| Paderborn |
The old city center was an instant apocalypse, the large churches, including the 11th
century cathedral, were lost in a sea of flame. The 1613 Rathaus, with all the splendor
of the Renaissance, toppled into cinders. Thousands of rare books and irreplaceable
manuscripts were lost forever both by the bombing and by the looting afterward. 85%
of Paderborn was destroyed on Palm Sunday. Hundreds were killed.
century cathedral, were lost in a sea of flame. The 1613 Rathaus, with all the splendor
of the Renaissance, toppled into cinders. Thousands of rare books and irreplaceable
manuscripts were lost forever both by the bombing and by the looting afterward. 85%
of Paderborn was destroyed on Palm Sunday. Hundreds were killed.
Later, the ruins of one of Charlemagne's palaces was discovered beneath rubble
Paderborn belongs to the list of the most destroyed cities in Germany. Only burned out ruins and mountains of rubble
remained of the medieval city center after March 27, 1945, when 275 heavy British bombers accompanied by 115
American fighters set their sites on Paderborn. Their order read: Destruction of city center. 1,200 years of history
turned to ashes in a mere thirty minutes under the hellish bombardment of 200 aerial mines, 11,000 high-explosive bombs
and more than 92,000 incendiary bombs. The target was supposedly the railroads, but they had already been disabled.
remained of the medieval city center after March 27, 1945, when 275 heavy British bombers accompanied by 115
American fighters set their sites on Paderborn. Their order read: Destruction of city center. 1,200 years of history
turned to ashes in a mere thirty minutes under the hellish bombardment of 200 aerial mines, 11,000 high-explosive bombs
and more than 92,000 incendiary bombs. The target was supposedly the railroads, but they had already been disabled.
| Pforzheim |
| Osnabrück |
The city of Osnabrück was founded in 780
by Charlemagne, and became seat of the
Bishopric of Osnabrück by 803, making it
the oldest bishopric in Saxony.
by Charlemagne, and became seat of the
Bishopric of Osnabrück by 803, making it
the oldest bishopric in Saxony.
It was given merchant, customs and coinage privileges in 889 by King Arnulf of Carinthia, and first
mentioned as a "city" in 1147. Barbarosa granted the city fortification privileges (Befestigungsrecht) in
1147, and the medieval fortification was built. Osnabrück became a member of the Hanseatic League
in the 12th century.
mentioned as a "city" in 1147. Barbarosa granted the city fortification privileges (Befestigungsrecht) in
1147, and the medieval fortification was built. Osnabrück became a member of the Hanseatic League
in the 12th century.
Like most German cities, Osnabrück was all but destroyed by Allied bombing in the
Second World War. The flight paths of both the British and American bombers from
London to Berlin and Central Germany were directly over Osnabrück. Thus, on their
return flights they casually dumped their leftover bombs on the city, not for any military
significance, but merely for its use as their trash can. Osnabrück was among the first and
the last bombed German cities. On September 4, 1939, sirens howled in Osnabrück for
the first time, the first of 2,400 trips to shelters and cellars for Osnabrückers during the
course of the war (Germany did not attack Coventry until 1940). 78 air raids later, and
Osnabrück was no more. The last bombing took place on March 25, 1945. 181 aerial
mines, nearly 25,000 high explosives bombs, over 650,000 incendiary bombs and nearly
12,000 liquid incendiary bombs were dumped between 1942 and 1945 over Osnabrück.
Second World War. The flight paths of both the British and American bombers from
London to Berlin and Central Germany were directly over Osnabrück. Thus, on their
return flights they casually dumped their leftover bombs on the city, not for any military
significance, but merely for its use as their trash can. Osnabrück was among the first and
the last bombed German cities. On September 4, 1939, sirens howled in Osnabrück for
the first time, the first of 2,400 trips to shelters and cellars for Osnabrückers during the
course of the war (Germany did not attack Coventry until 1940). 78 air raids later, and
Osnabrück was no more. The last bombing took place on March 25, 1945. 181 aerial
mines, nearly 25,000 high explosives bombs, over 650,000 incendiary bombs and nearly
12,000 liquid incendiary bombs were dumped between 1942 and 1945 over Osnabrück.
The bombing killed a couple thousand people, including 268 Allied prisoners of war, and injured 2000. 750 major and
3600 smaller fires incinerated the city. The old part of town was 85% destroyed. 14,000 dwellings were destroyed,
leaving 87,000 humans shelterless. All industrial and public plants such as post offices and all public utilities were trashed.
141 public buildings, 7 churches, 13 schools and a hospital went up in flames. 900,000 cubic meters of rubble was left.
3600 smaller fires incinerated the city. The old part of town was 85% destroyed. 14,000 dwellings were destroyed,
leaving 87,000 humans shelterless. All industrial and public plants such as post offices and all public utilities were trashed.
141 public buildings, 7 churches, 13 schools and a hospital went up in flames. 900,000 cubic meters of rubble was left.
| Ohrdruf |
J. S. Bach was orphaned, and from the ages of 10 to 15
he went to live with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph
Bach, who was the organist at the Michaeliskirche in the
Thuringian town of Ohrdruf. It contained an historic
three-manual Austrian baroque organ in a historic, and it
was here that Bach learned about organ construction.
Michaeliskirche was destroyed by Allied bombing in 1945
and only a tower fragment remains
he went to live with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph
Bach, who was the organist at the Michaeliskirche in the
Thuringian town of Ohrdruf. It contained an historic
three-manual Austrian baroque organ in a historic, and it
was here that Bach learned about organ construction.
Michaeliskirche was destroyed by Allied bombing in 1945
and only a tower fragment remains
American eye-witness account: "The Group Headquarters entered Pirmasens late the night of the 23rd and here at close
range saw the devastating effects of allied aerial bombing. The town of perhaps fifty thousand was practically leveled.
German families were huddled together wherever they could find shelter. Others wandered in a daze through still smoking
rubble Broken water mains spouted water and the smell of death was everywhere. That night the Group found a place to
bivouac near a mausoleum and cemetery at the edge of town. In back of the buildings were row upon row of coffins of
the unburied dead and within the mausoleum was a large room completely filled with corpses. We were glad to soon
move on. The following day the results of allied air power could be seen again along a mountain road. For well over a
mile were at least two hundred dead horses from a German supply column that had been strafed, still harnessed to their
wrecked wagons. I for one was not ashamed to feel the same deep sorrow and anguish that I had felt on seeing our dead
GIs, and for that matter the young teen age dead German soldiers."
range saw the devastating effects of allied aerial bombing. The town of perhaps fifty thousand was practically leveled.
German families were huddled together wherever they could find shelter. Others wandered in a daze through still smoking
rubble Broken water mains spouted water and the smell of death was everywhere. That night the Group found a place to
bivouac near a mausoleum and cemetery at the edge of town. In back of the buildings were row upon row of coffins of
the unburied dead and within the mausoleum was a large room completely filled with corpses. We were glad to soon
move on. The following day the results of allied air power could be seen again along a mountain road. For well over a
mile were at least two hundred dead horses from a German supply column that had been strafed, still harnessed to their
wrecked wagons. I for one was not ashamed to feel the same deep sorrow and anguish that I had felt on seeing our dead
GIs, and for that matter the young teen age dead German soldiers."
Pirmasens, the site of Germany's oldest shoe factory, was first mentioned in 860AD
as a cloister. It was chartered by Landgrave Ludwig IX. who built his residence and a
military garrison there in 1763. When he died, the garrison was disbanded and the
townspeople had no way to make a living, so the ex-soldiers fashioned the old leather
uniform parts into simple shoes which their wives peddled. In the early and mid 19th
century, the town experienced prosperity and Europe's first shoe factories were built.
as a cloister. It was chartered by Landgrave Ludwig IX. who built his residence and a
military garrison there in 1763. When he died, the garrison was disbanded and the
townspeople had no way to make a living, so the ex-soldiers fashioned the old leather
uniform parts into simple shoes which their wives peddled. In the early and mid 19th
century, the town experienced prosperity and Europe's first shoe factories were built.
| Pirmasens |
Paderborn's documented history began in the year 777 when Charlemagne convened the first
Frankonian Imperial Diet here after defeating the Saxons. In 799, it was the meeting place of
Charlemagne and Pope Leo III who had just fled Rome because of a rebellion, and he created a
bishopric here in Paderborn. Catholicism played a critical role in Paderborn, and the old city was full
of relics, rare manuscripts, ancient churches, including a large cathedral which dominated the city
center. One of the earliest recorded partnership between two cities was formed in 839, when the
remains of St. Liborius were moved from Le Mans, France to Paderborn. In the 11th century, a
series of buildings were erected by a member of the Saxon royal family.
Frankonian Imperial Diet here after defeating the Saxons. In 799, it was the meeting place of
Charlemagne and Pope Leo III who had just fled Rome because of a rebellion, and he created a
bishopric here in Paderborn. Catholicism played a critical role in Paderborn, and the old city was full
of relics, rare manuscripts, ancient churches, including a large cathedral which dominated the city
center. One of the earliest recorded partnership between two cities was formed in 839, when the
remains of St. Liborius were moved from Le Mans, France to Paderborn. In the 11th century, a
series of buildings were erected by a member of the Saxon royal family.
Paderborn was an important trading town and became a
member of the Hanseatic League in 1295. The city was badly
damaged during the 30 Years War, but rebounded and was
later adorned with lovely baroque architecture. Paderborn
became part of Prussia in the 19th century and linked in with
the German railway.
member of the Hanseatic League in 1295. The city was badly
damaged during the 30 Years War, but rebounded and was
later adorned with lovely baroque architecture. Paderborn
became part of Prussia in the 19th century and linked in with
the German railway.
Osnabrückers were influenced to join the Reformation, and this resulted in conflict with the Catholic
bishops until the 17th century. Negotiations here at the Friedenssaal following the Thirty Years War
led to the Peace of Westphalia, and when the Catholic and the Protestant delegations refused to
negotiate in person, the Catholics were seated in Munster, and the Protestants in Osnabrück. For the
city, it was compromised that it would be governed alternately by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
bishop, with the Protestant bishops being nominated by the Dukes of Braunschweig-Luneberg, and
this led to the last Prince-bishop, Friedrich, Duke of York and Albany, 1763- 1827, being elected at
the age of 196 days old to enable him to hold the position for as long as possible. After secularization
following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bishopric was appropriated into the
Kingdom of Hannover in 1803, as confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and then became
part of Prussia in 1866. Britain's King George1 was born here, as was Erich Remarque.
bishops until the 17th century. Negotiations here at the Friedenssaal following the Thirty Years War
led to the Peace of Westphalia, and when the Catholic and the Protestant delegations refused to
negotiate in person, the Catholics were seated in Munster, and the Protestants in Osnabrück. For the
city, it was compromised that it would be governed alternately by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant
bishop, with the Protestant bishops being nominated by the Dukes of Braunschweig-Luneberg, and
this led to the last Prince-bishop, Friedrich, Duke of York and Albany, 1763- 1827, being elected at
the age of 196 days old to enable him to hold the position for as long as possible. After secularization
following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bishopric was appropriated into the
Kingdom of Hannover in 1803, as confirmed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and then became
part of Prussia in 1866. Britain's King George1 was born here, as was Erich Remarque.
Charlemagne sent out missionaries in 793 under the Frisian Ludger to convert the Saxons. Ludger
built his church and cloister on the right bank of the river Aa, on the height called the Horsteberg: it
was the monastery ("monasterium") from which Münster derives its name. In 805, he travelled to
Rome to be ordained a bishop, and soon founded a school. The combination of ford and crossroad,
marketplace, episcopal center, library and school established Münster's as a Cathedral city.
built his church and cloister on the right bank of the river Aa, on the height called the Horsteberg: it
was the monastery ("monasterium") from which Münster derives its name. In 805, he travelled to
Rome to be ordained a bishop, and soon founded a school. The combination of ford and crossroad,
marketplace, episcopal center, library and school established Münster's as a Cathedral city.
Münster was a leading member of the Hanseatic League. In 1534, the
Anabaptists took power in the what was called the Münster Rebellion, and
founded their own democratic state, but in 1535, when the town was
recaptured, the Anabaptists were tortured to death. At the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648, the legal foundations upon which modern Europe was
built were laid. Munster was to remain Roman Catholic.
Anabaptists took power in the what was called the Münster Rebellion, and
founded their own democratic state, but in 1535, when the town was
recaptured, the Anabaptists were tortured to death. At the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648, the legal foundations upon which modern Europe was
built were laid. Munster was to remain Roman Catholic.
| Nürnberg (see under Featured Cities) |
Pforzheim is one of the smallest towns in Baden, and would not even
be memorable, had it not been for its ruin. Located at the confluence
of the Wurm, Enz and Nagold Rivers at the northern rim of the
eastern part of the Black Forest, the "Pforte zum Schwarzwald" or
"Gateway to the Black Forest" once held a Roman settlement.
be memorable, had it not been for its ruin. Located at the confluence
of the Wurm, Enz and Nagold Rivers at the northern rim of the
eastern part of the Black Forest, the "Pforte zum Schwarzwald" or
"Gateway to the Black Forest" once held a Roman settlement.
A ford was built here through the river for the Roman military highway. Pforzheim later on became a
center for timber rafting from the Black Forest via the rivers Nagold, Enz and Wuerm, and then the
Necker and Rhine to far away lands for use in shipbuilding. It was an important medieval trade
center, often changing hands until it passed to the Margraves of Baden in the 13th century, and it
served as their residence until 1565.
center for timber rafting from the Black Forest via the rivers Nagold, Enz and Wuerm, and then the
Necker and Rhine to far away lands for use in shipbuilding. It was an important medieval trade
center, often changing hands until it passed to the Margraves of Baden in the 13th century, and it
served as their residence until 1565.
| The post-war British Bombing Survey Unit called the bombing destruction of Pforzheim "probably the greatest proportion in one raid during the war." It was a "smashing" success. |
Pforzheim was damaged in the Thirty Years War and devastated by the French in the War of the
Grand Alliance in 1689. But, the little city rebounded and maintained life as a quiet hamlet on the
edge of the Black Forest. It was called the "Paris of the Black Forest" because of its medieval charm,
and the "City of Gold" because of its jewelry and clockmaking.
Grand Alliance in 1689. But, the little city rebounded and maintained life as a quiet hamlet on the
edge of the Black Forest. It was called the "Paris of the Black Forest" because of its medieval charm,
and the "City of Gold" because of its jewelry and clockmaking.
The long winter months and abundance of wood gave birth to a huge industry in the Black Forest, and by 1808 there
were already 688 clock makers and 582 clock peddlers in Ketterer's neck of the forest. Clock peddlers would put the
gaily painted and embellished clocks on their backs and peddle them in summer.
were already 688 clock makers and 582 clock peddlers in Ketterer's neck of the forest. Clock peddlers would put the
gaily painted and embellished clocks on their backs and peddle them in summer.
Until the mid-17th century, sundials and hourglasses
kept time. Franz Anton Ketterer is usually credited
for making the first Black Forest Cuckoo Clock in
the small village of Schönwald near Triberg in the
Schwarzwald, and in any case it was a product of
almost a hundred years of local clock making
tradition. Inspired by church organs, he used
bellows to produce cuckoo-like sounds.
kept time. Franz Anton Ketterer is usually credited
for making the first Black Forest Cuckoo Clock in
the small village of Schönwald near Triberg in the
Schwarzwald, and in any case it was a product of
almost a hundred years of local clock making
tradition. Inspired by church organs, he used
bellows to produce cuckoo-like sounds.
1643
| Neustrelitz |
Neustrelitz is an old Pommeranian town and today the capital of the district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, birthplace of
Germany's most beloved queen who stood up to Napoleon, Queen Luise of Prussia, born Princess of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. The village of Strelitz was first mentioned in 1278 and it grew to a small town in the following centuries. In the
17th century Strelitz was a part of the duchy of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which ceased to exist after the death of the last
duke in 1695. Afterwards the new duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was established (1701). This small duchy contained the
present-day district and an enclave around Ratzeburg, which is today situated in Schleswig-Holstein. Its Baroque Schloß
(palace) was destroyed in 1945, but the palace gardens (Schloßgarten) still exist.
Germany's most beloved queen who stood up to Napoleon, Queen Luise of Prussia, born Princess of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. The village of Strelitz was first mentioned in 1278 and it grew to a small town in the following centuries. In the
17th century Strelitz was a part of the duchy of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which ceased to exist after the death of the last
duke in 1695. Afterwards the new duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was established (1701). This small duchy contained the
present-day district and an enclave around Ratzeburg, which is today situated in Schleswig-Holstein. Its Baroque Schloß
(palace) was destroyed in 1945, but the palace gardens (Schloßgarten) still exist.
| Offenburg |
Offenburg is a city located in today's Baden-Württemberg. The city is first mentioned in historical documents dating from
1148. By 1240, Offenburg had already been declared a Free Imperial City. Offenburg was the target of 1944 bomb
attacks which, beside the railway facilities, destroyed the bell tower and stained-glass windows of an ancient church.
1148. By 1240, Offenburg had already been declared a Free Imperial City. Offenburg was the target of 1944 bomb
attacks which, beside the railway facilities, destroyed the bell tower and stained-glass windows of an ancient church.