| Napoleon Bonaparte |
Brilliant Napoleon Bonaparte was born on Corsica in 1769, the fourth and
second surviving child of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer, and his wife, Letizia
Ramolino, a family which had just gained French nobility status. His family,
of ancient Tuscan or possibly Maniot Greek roots, had emigrated to Corsica
in the 16th century. He was sent to France in 1777 to study at the Royal
Military School in Brienne, and later at the Ecole Militaire in Paris, where
he graduated as a Second Lieutenant of artillery. Napoleon fought for the
Republic during the French Revolution, helping to defeat the British at
Toulon. For his services there, he was made a Brigadier General.
second surviving child of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer, and his wife, Letizia
Ramolino, a family which had just gained French nobility status. His family,
of ancient Tuscan or possibly Maniot Greek roots, had emigrated to Corsica
in the 16th century. He was sent to France in 1777 to study at the Royal
Military School in Brienne, and later at the Ecole Militaire in Paris, where
he graduated as a Second Lieutenant of artillery. Napoleon fought for the
Republic during the French Revolution, helping to defeat the British at
Toulon. For his services there, he was made a Brigadier General.
He gained command of the French army in Italy, where, after defeating the Austrians in 1797, he
negotiated a Treaty from which he earned widespread popularity upon his return to France. He
annexed German land, and in 1801 he suggested that the larger territories be compensated by
confiscating the free cities and ecclesiastical states. By 1803, 112 small states were thus seized by
their neighbors. He then took an army to Egypt to hamper British shipping to India, but when it did
not go as planned he abandoned his army and rapidly returned to Paris to take advantage of the
situation, becoming the first of three consuls in the new government in 1799.
negotiated a Treaty from which he earned widespread popularity upon his return to France. He
annexed German land, and in 1801 he suggested that the larger territories be compensated by
confiscating the free cities and ecclesiastical states. By 1803, 112 small states were thus seized by
their neighbors. He then took an army to Egypt to hamper British shipping to India, but when it did
not go as planned he abandoned his army and rapidly returned to Paris to take advantage of the
situation, becoming the first of three consuls in the new government in 1799.
As First Consul, Napoleon began a program to consolidate his power, ending the dissension between
France and the Church with the Concordat of 1801. Bonaparte shared Voltaire's belief that the
people needed a religion, but personally he was indifferent to religion. Napoleon signed the Peace of
Amiens, a temporary peace with the British in 1802 after several wars. He also sold France's
Louisiana territory to the U.S.A. in 1803. He set the foundation for much of Europe's legal system
with the codification of the civil law which started in 1790 and was promulgated on March 21,1804.
It was later known as the Code Napoléon: individual liberty, freedom of work and conscience, the lay
character of the state, and equality before the law; while at the same time protecting landed property
and giving greater liberty to employers. His reforms were at first welcomed. However, in
1804,Napoleon dispensed with the Consulate and crowned himself Emperor.
France and the Church with the Concordat of 1801. Bonaparte shared Voltaire's belief that the
people needed a religion, but personally he was indifferent to religion. Napoleon signed the Peace of
Amiens, a temporary peace with the British in 1802 after several wars. He also sold France's
Louisiana territory to the U.S.A. in 1803. He set the foundation for much of Europe's legal system
with the codification of the civil law which started in 1790 and was promulgated on March 21,1804.
It was later known as the Code Napoléon: individual liberty, freedom of work and conscience, the lay
character of the state, and equality before the law; while at the same time protecting landed property
and giving greater liberty to employers. His reforms were at first welcomed. However, in
1804,Napoleon dispensed with the Consulate and crowned himself Emperor.
On December 2, 1805, his greatest victory came when he defeated the Russian and Austrian armies
in the Battle of Austerlitz. On March 6, 1806, Franz II abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor and
declared the old empire dissolved. Napoleon immediately began to dismantle the old Empire. He
forced 16 German states to form the Confederation of the Rhine and to secede from the Empire. By
the Treaty of Pressburg, Austria renounced all influence in Italy and ceded Venetia and Dalmatia to
Napoleon, as well as extensive territory in Germany to his allies Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden.
The Bourbons were dethroned in the kingdom of Naples, which was given to Napoleon's brother
Joseph. Habsburg lands were now called the 'Kaisertum Österreich'.
in the Battle of Austerlitz. On March 6, 1806, Franz II abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor and
declared the old empire dissolved. Napoleon immediately began to dismantle the old Empire. He
forced 16 German states to form the Confederation of the Rhine and to secede from the Empire. By
the Treaty of Pressburg, Austria renounced all influence in Italy and ceded Venetia and Dalmatia to
Napoleon, as well as extensive territory in Germany to his allies Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden.
The Bourbons were dethroned in the kingdom of Naples, which was given to Napoleon's brother
Joseph. Habsburg lands were now called the 'Kaisertum Österreich'.
In July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, soon to embrace
all western Germany in a union under French protection, and he controlled
almost all of Western Europe with the exception of Spain. By instituting the
Continental System, under which all European ports would refuse to accept
British shipments, he tried to destroy the economy of Britain, but failed. His
attempts to force Spain to comply touched off the Peninsular War.
all western Germany in a union under French protection, and he controlled
almost all of Western Europe with the exception of Spain. By instituting the
Continental System, under which all European ports would refuse to accept
British shipments, he tried to destroy the economy of Britain, but failed. His
attempts to force Spain to comply touched off the Peninsular War.
There were five kingdoms in the German speaking lands. The rulers of two of these, Austria and
Prussia, were considered kings by divine rule. The rulers of the three others, Bavaria, Saxony and
Wurtemberg, were kings by the wishes of Napoleon, and this did not make them popular. The new
German Confederation, a league of thirty-eight sovereign states, under the chairmanship of the King,
now Emperor, and in the Diet that met on Frankfurt, the thirty-eight delegates representing thirty-
eight different interests could make no decision without a unanimous vote, an unrealistic rule which
made the "German Confederation" a laughing stock.
Prussia, were considered kings by divine rule. The rulers of the three others, Bavaria, Saxony and
Wurtemberg, were kings by the wishes of Napoleon, and this did not make them popular. The new
German Confederation, a league of thirty-eight sovereign states, under the chairmanship of the King,
now Emperor, and in the Diet that met on Frankfurt, the thirty-eight delegates representing thirty-
eight different interests could make no decision without a unanimous vote, an unrealistic rule which
made the "German Confederation" a laughing stock.
At the same time, the wide-spread German support for Napoleon's rule begane to erode after the
famous defeat of the Germans by Napoleon at the battles of Jena and Auerstadt in 1806-1807.
Notables such as the Humboldts and Goethe had hailed him as the "regenerator" of Germany. But
others, such as the Brothers Grimm, never saw him in that light. Napoleon had ignored the demand
for independence of most of the little kingdoms, grand-duchies, margravates, principalities, baronies,
electorates, free cities and free villages that made up Germany and only fifty-two out of more than
three hundred survived the year 1806. Also, the cultural destruction, plundering and generally
deplorable conduct of French troops in Germany,as illustrated below, added with the creation of
artificial kingdoms for his brothers, turned many Germans into ardent anti-French nationalists.
famous defeat of the Germans by Napoleon at the battles of Jena and Auerstadt in 1806-1807.
Notables such as the Humboldts and Goethe had hailed him as the "regenerator" of Germany. But
others, such as the Brothers Grimm, never saw him in that light. Napoleon had ignored the demand
for independence of most of the little kingdoms, grand-duchies, margravates, principalities, baronies,
electorates, free cities and free villages that made up Germany and only fifty-two out of more than
three hundred survived the year 1806. Also, the cultural destruction, plundering and generally
deplorable conduct of French troops in Germany,as illustrated below, added with the creation of
artificial kingdoms for his brothers, turned many Germans into ardent anti-French nationalists.
As a precaution to maintain imperial status in the event the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved
(as indeed it later was), Maria Theresa's grandson Franz II assumed the hereditary imperial title of
Emperor of Austria in 1804.
(as indeed it later was), Maria Theresa's grandson Franz II assumed the hereditary imperial title of
Emperor of Austria in 1804.
| Andreas Hofer |
Popular Tirolese patriot Andreas Hofer was born on November 22, 1767 at St.
Leonhard, in the Passeier valley where his family owned Sandhof Inn. He was a
horse trader, wine merchant and, after his marriage with Anna Ladurner, an
innkeeper. In his many travels and business dealings, he acquired a reputation for
intelligence and honesty. During the wars against the French from 1796 to 1805,
Hofer first became a sharpshooter and then a captain of militia. By the treaty of
Pressburg in 1805, Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and Hofer, in
utter devotion to Austria, became a leader of the foment against Bavarian, and
thereby French, rule. In January of 1806, Hofer and many like-minded comrades
were invited to Vienna by the Archduke to discuss an imminent revolt.
Leonhard, in the Passeier valley where his family owned Sandhof Inn. He was a
horse trader, wine merchant and, after his marriage with Anna Ladurner, an
innkeeper. In his many travels and business dealings, he acquired a reputation for
intelligence and honesty. During the wars against the French from 1796 to 1805,
Hofer first became a sharpshooter and then a captain of militia. By the treaty of
Pressburg in 1805, Tirol was transferred from Austria to Bavaria, and Hofer, in
utter devotion to Austria, became a leader of the foment against Bavarian, and
thereby French, rule. In January of 1806, Hofer and many like-minded comrades
were invited to Vienna by the Archduke to discuss an imminent revolt.
The overpowering French force pushed into the country at once, and because an amnesty had been
stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation, gave in their submission.
On November 12, however, after discovering deceptive reports of Austrian victories, Hofer changed
his mind and decided to fight to the last, again issuing a proclamation calling the mountaineers to
arms. Meeting with little response, Hofer, a bounty on his head, had to take refuge in a mountain hut
on the Pfandler Alm with a faithful follower Kajetan Sweth, remaining there from late November.
stipulated in the treaty, Hofer and his companions, after some hesitation, gave in their submission.
On November 12, however, after discovering deceptive reports of Austrian victories, Hofer changed
his mind and decided to fight to the last, again issuing a proclamation calling the mountaineers to
arms. Meeting with little response, Hofer, a bounty on his head, had to take refuge in a mountain hut
on the Pfandler Alm with a faithful follower Kajetan Sweth, remaining there from late November.
A greedy countryman, Josef Raffl, betrayed him for the reward,
and on January 27,1810, Hofer was captured by Italians and sent in
chains to Mantua. After a hasty hearing, and without even waiting
for the sentence, he was shot to death in Mantua on February 20,
1810. This act caused immense disgust all over Germany and
inflamed more hatred of the aggressive French. Just hours before
his death, Hofer wrote to a friend:
and on January 27,1810, Hofer was captured by Italians and sent in
chains to Mantua. After a hasty hearing, and without even waiting
for the sentence, he was shot to death in Mantua on February 20,
1810. This act caused immense disgust all over Germany and
inflamed more hatred of the aggressive French. Just hours before
his death, Hofer wrote to a friend:
Shortly before he died, he said: "The Tirol will again be Austrian" and in three years it was. In
1823, Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were interred in the
Franciscan church, and in 1834, a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893, a bronze statue
of him was also set up on the Iselberg. In 1818, the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the
Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.
1823, Hofer's remains were removed from Mantua to Innsbruck, where they were interred in the
Franciscan church, and in 1834, a marble statue was erected over his tomb. In 1893, a bronze statue
of him was also set up on the Iselberg. In 1818, the patent of nobility bestowed upon him by the
Austrian emperor in 1809 was conferred upon his family.
In April of 1809, Hofer mobilized the Passeier militia and the Tirolese rose in arms and marched to
Sterzing, where they seized the town and took the Bavarian occupation forces prisoner. The militia
then pursued the enemy troops through the Wipp Valley, inflicting substantial casualties. The French
occupied Innsbruck, but left only a small garrison of troops there. Under Hofer's inspirational
command, patriots from all over the province swelled his troops and readied for battle. Victory was
theirs, Hofer's famous motto in their heads, "You've been to mass; you've had a schnapps. Now
forward in the name of God!" This resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck by the
Austrians. On the morning after, extremely religious Hofer called all his officers together on the hill
for prayer and then proclaimed himself governor of the province in the name of the emperor himself,
and for two months, while the Tirol was free from invasion, he ruled the country while living like a
simple peasant. Hofer thought he could return to his home and leave the government in the hands of
an attendant who had been sent from Vienna. However, the Tirol was abandoned at the armistice of
Znaim, and French Marshal Lefebvre advanced to subdue the country. Hofer inspired the people to
risk their lives for faith and freedom, and they organized resistance to the French "atheists and
freemasons". On August 13, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French were routed by the Tirolese
peasants under Hofer. The Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer entered
Innsbruck in triumph, taking the government into his own hands. He moved into the Hofburg, and
ruled his countrymen.
Sterzing, where they seized the town and took the Bavarian occupation forces prisoner. The militia
then pursued the enemy troops through the Wipp Valley, inflicting substantial casualties. The French
occupied Innsbruck, but left only a small garrison of troops there. Under Hofer's inspirational
command, patriots from all over the province swelled his troops and readied for battle. Victory was
theirs, Hofer's famous motto in their heads, "You've been to mass; you've had a schnapps. Now
forward in the name of God!" This resulted in the temporary reoccupation of Innsbruck by the
Austrians. On the morning after, extremely religious Hofer called all his officers together on the hill
for prayer and then proclaimed himself governor of the province in the name of the emperor himself,
and for two months, while the Tirol was free from invasion, he ruled the country while living like a
simple peasant. Hofer thought he could return to his home and leave the government in the hands of
an attendant who had been sent from Vienna. However, the Tirol was abandoned at the armistice of
Znaim, and French Marshal Lefebvre advanced to subdue the country. Hofer inspired the people to
risk their lives for faith and freedom, and they organized resistance to the French "atheists and
freemasons". On August 13, in another battle on the Iselberg, the French were routed by the Tirolese
peasants under Hofer. The Bavarians were again forced to evacuate the country, and Hofer entered
Innsbruck in triumph, taking the government into his own hands. He moved into the Hofburg, and
ruled his countrymen.
Francis II bestowed on him a golden medal, which led Hofer to gullibly believe that the emperor
would never abandon his faithful Tirolese. However, news of the conclusion of the treaty of
Schönbrunn, by which Tirol was again ceded to Bavaria, reached him on October 14, and he was
shocked. On November 1, they lost the third battle of Berg Isel against a superior force of the enemy
and Hofer was forced to flee, with a hefty reward from the French on his head.
would never abandon his faithful Tirolese. However, news of the conclusion of the treaty of
Schönbrunn, by which Tirol was again ceded to Bavaria, reached him on October 14, and he was
shocked. On November 1, they lost the third battle of Berg Isel against a superior force of the enemy
and Hofer was forced to flee, with a hefty reward from the French on his head.
| "Goodbye cruel world. Death comes so easily to me that there will be no tears in my eyes." |
In the spring of 1806, while working at the book selling firm of Stein, Mr. Johann Jakob Palm of
Erlangen received a package of tightly wrapped books in a private transaction between customers,
the contents of which were completely unknown to him. The package included a small, anonymous
pamphlet entitled "Deutschland in seiner tiefen Erniedrigung" ("Germany in her deep Humiliation")
which attacked Napoleon and the behaviour of the French troops in Bavaria where they were
plundering, destroying and committing foul abuses upon the local population. Palm unwittingly sent
the package on to a book seller in Augsburg. Hearing of the pamphlet, but failing to discover the
author. Napoleon had Palm arrested. He was handed over to a military commission at Braunau with
orders to try him and execute him within 24 hours. Palm was denied the right of defence, but at his
hearing on August 22, it was proven that he was not the author.
Erlangen received a package of tightly wrapped books in a private transaction between customers,
the contents of which were completely unknown to him. The package included a small, anonymous
pamphlet entitled "Deutschland in seiner tiefen Erniedrigung" ("Germany in her deep Humiliation")
which attacked Napoleon and the behaviour of the French troops in Bavaria where they were
plundering, destroying and committing foul abuses upon the local population. Palm unwittingly sent
the package on to a book seller in Augsburg. Hearing of the pamphlet, but failing to discover the
author. Napoleon had Palm arrested. He was handed over to a military commission at Braunau with
orders to try him and execute him within 24 hours. Palm was denied the right of defence, but at his
hearing on August 22, it was proven that he was not the author.
Instead of being freed, he was notified that he would be executed in the
afternoon. The townsfolk begged the French for mercy for Johann Palm, but at
the appointed hour on August 25, 1806, he was taken with wrists bound behind
his back where he was shot by six French soldiers. Only one bullet hit him from
the volley, and he dropped to the ground in pain. As he tried to get up, another
volley was discharged. Again, he fell, wounded, but not dead. Two of the
soldiers then ran forward, placed the muzzles of their muskets to his head to
finished him off. This act of cruelty outraged Germans.
afternoon. The townsfolk begged the French for mercy for Johann Palm, but at
the appointed hour on August 25, 1806, he was taken with wrists bound behind
his back where he was shot by six French soldiers. Only one bullet hit him from
the volley, and he dropped to the ground in pain. As he tried to get up, another
volley was discharged. Again, he fell, wounded, but not dead. Two of the
soldiers then ran forward, placed the muzzles of their muskets to his head to
finished him off. This act of cruelty outraged Germans.
| Johann Palm |